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The Italian War of 1542–46 was a conflict late in the Italian Wars, pitting Francis I of France and Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII of England. The course of the war saw extensive fighting in Italy, France, and the Low Countries, as well as attempted invasions of Spain and England. The conflict was inconclusive and ruinously expensive for the major participants. The war arose from the failure of the Truce of Nice, which ended the Italian War of 1536–38, to resolve the long-standing conflict between Charles and Francis—particularly their conflicting claims to the Duchy of Milan. Having found a suitable pretext, Francis once again declared war against his perpetual enemy in 1542. Fighting began at once throughout the Low Countries; the following year saw the Franco-Ottoman alliance's attack on Nice, as well as a series of maneuvers in northern Italy which culminated in the bloody Battle of Ceresole. Charles and Henry then proceeded to invade France, but the long sieges of Boulogne-sur-Mer and Saint-Dizier prevented a decisive offensive against the French. Charles came to terms with Francis by the Treaty of Crépy in late 1544, but the death of Francis's younger son, the Duke of Orléans—whose proposed marriage to a relative of the Emperor was the foundation of the treaty—made it moot less than a year afterwards. Henry, left alone but unwilling to return Boulogne to the French, continued to fight until 1546, when the Treaty of Ardres finally restored peace between France and England. The deaths of Francis and Henry in early 1547 left the resolution of the Italian Wars to their successors. == Prelude == The Truce of Nice, which ended the Italian War of 1536–38, provided little resolution to the long conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France; although hostilities had ended, giving way to a cautious entente, neither monarch was satisfied with the war's outcome. Francis continued to harbor a desire for the Duchy of Milan, to which he held a dynastic claim; Charles, for his part, insisted that Francis comply at last with the terms of the Treaty of Madrid, which had been forced on the French king during his captivity in Spain after the Italian War of 1521–26.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 385–387.〕 Other conflicting claims to various territories—Charles's to Burgundy and Francis's to Naples and Flanders, among others—remained a matter of contention as well. Negotiations between the two powers continued through 1538 and into 1539. In 1539, Francis invited Charles—who faced a rebellion in the Low Countries—to travel through France on his way north from Spain.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 389–391.〕 Charles accepted, and was richly received; but while he was willing to discuss religious matters with his host—the Protestant Reformation being underway—he delayed on the question of political differences, and nothing had been decided by the time he left French territory.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 391–393. Knecht writes that "the Emperor's itinerary from Loches northwards had evidently been devised to show him the principal artistic achievements of () reign.... no expense had been spared to make his stay memorable" (Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 392).〕 In March 1540, Charles proposed to settle the matter by having Maria of Spain marry Francis's younger son, the Duke of Orléans; the two would then inherit the Netherlands, Burgundy, and Charolais after the Emperor's death.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 394. The proposal specified, however, that the territories would revert to the Habsburg line if Mary died childless. Several other marriages between the Habsburg and Valois were also considered—notably one between Charles's son Phillip and Jeanne d'Albret.〕 Francis, meanwhile, was to renounce his claims to the duchies of Milan and Savoy, ratify the treaties of Madrid and Cambrai, and join an alliance with Charles.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 394. Knecht, citing Brandi, terms the proposed alliance "a league in defence of Christendom" (Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 394).〕 Francis, considering the loss of Milan too large a price to pay for future possession of the Netherlands and unwilling to ratify the treaties in any case, made his own offer; on 24 April, he agreed to surrender the Milanese claim in exchange for immediate receipt of the Netherlands.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 394–395.〕 The negotiations continued for weeks, but made no progress, and were abandoned in June 1540.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 395. The failure of the negotiations led to the downfall of Anne de Montmorency, who had been their chief proponent; for more details, see Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 395–397.〕 Francis soon began gathering new allies to his cause. William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, who was engaged in the Guelderian Wars, a dispute with Charles over the succession in Guelders, sealed his alliance with Francis by marrying Francis's niece, Jeanne d'Albret.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 396.〕 Francis sought an alliance with the Schmalkaldic League as well, but the League demurred; by 1542, the remaining potential French allies in northern Germany had reached their own understandings with the Emperor.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 478. Among other factors, the German Protestants were critical of the treatment accorded to the Huguenots in France.〕 French efforts farther east were more fruitful, leading to a renewed Franco-Ottoman alliance; Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to distract Charles from Ottoman advances in Hungary, encouraged the Franco-Imperial rift.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 478–479.〕 On 4 July 1541, however, the French ambassador to the Ottoman court, Antoine de Rincon, was killed by Imperial troops as he was travelling near Pavia.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479. Also killed was one Cesare Fregoso, a diplomat in French employ on his way to Venice.〕 In response to Francis's protests, Charles denied all responsibility, promising to conduct an inquiry with the assistance of the Pope; he had by now formed plans for a campaign in North Africa, and wished to avoid further entanglements in Europe.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479. The Pope's intervention was requested by Francis himself.〕 By the end of September 1541, Charles was in Majorca, preparing an attack on Algiers; Francis, considering it impolitic to attack a fellow Christian who was fighting the Muslims, promised not to declare war for as long as the Emperor was campaigning.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479.〕 The Imperial expedition, however, was entirely unsuccessful; storms scattered the invasion fleet soon after the initial landing, and Charles had returned to Spain with the remainder of his troops by November.〔Arnold, ''Renaissance at War'', 144–145; Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479. The Imperial troops abandoned their horses—those they had not been forced to eat—and their guns as they evacuated.〕 On 8 March 1542, the new French ambassador, Antoine Escalin des Eymars, returned from Constantinople with promises of Ottoman aid in a war against Charles.〔Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479.〕 Francis declared war on 12 July, naming various injuries as the causes; among them was Rincon's murder, which he proclaimed "an injury so great, so detestable and so strange to those who bear the title and quality of prince that it cannot be in any way forgiven, suffered or endured".〔Blockmans, ''Emperor Charles V'', 72; Knecht, ''Renaissance Warrior'', 479–480.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Italian War of 1542–46」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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